1.4 DATA REPRESETATION: BIT, BYTE AND CHARACTER.

BIT.
A bit (short for binary digit) is the smallest unit of data computer can process. The binary system is a number system that has just two unique digits, 0 and 1 called bits. A bit is represented by the number 1 and 0. These numbers represent the binary system. They correspond to the states of on and off, true and false, or yes and no.
BYTE
Byte is a unit of information built from bits. When 8 bits are grouped together as a unit, they form byte. Bits and bytes are the basis for representing all meaningful information and programs on computers.
CHARACTER
One byte is equal to 8 bits. One byte represents a single charactersuch as the number, letter, or symbol. For example, the capital letter F is represented by binary code 01000110 that can be understood  by the computer system.
Computer does not understand letters or numbers or pictures or symbols. Computer uses a binary system to count as it only recognizas two states that are 0 an 1. Number  9 is represented by binary code 00111001. Eight bits grouped together as a unit are called byte. A byte represents a single character in the computer.
                                         1 byte = 8 bits = 1 character
There are three character codes or coding schemes to represent characters which are ASCII, EBCDIC and Unicode. Each byte contains eight bits. A byte provides enough different combination of 0s and 1s to represent 256 characters.
ASCII is the most widely used binary code for microcomputers (Personal Computer).
EBCDIC was developed by IBM and is used primary for large computer - mainframe and high end server.
The combinations of 0s and 1s are defined by patterns. These patterns are called coding system. The 256- character capability of ASCII and EBCDIC is too small to as Arabic, japanese and Chinese.
The Unicode coding schme is designed to solve this problem. It uses two bytes(16 bits) to represent one character. This gives it the capability for representing 65,536 different characters. This can cover all the world's languages. Unicode is downward-compatible with ASCII, meaning that Unicode can recognizes ASCII characters.
                                                        Unicode
                                      2 bytes = 16 bits = 1character

CHAPTER 2 - COMPUTER SYSTEMS

CHAPTER 2 - COMPUTER SYSTEMS

1.0  System concept
1.1  Define Computer Systems.

Computer is an electronic device, operating under the control of instructions stored its own memory,

• that can accept data (input),
• process the data according to specified rules (process),
• produce results (output),
• and store the results for future use (storage).

Meaning of input, process, output and storage.

1. Input - input is any data and instructions entered into the memory of a computer. There are four types of input which are:text, graphics, audio, and video.
2. Input device - Input device is any hardware component that allows users to enter data and intructions into a computer. Eg:keyboard, mouse, scanner, barcode reader. Also pointing device:mouse, joystick, trackball, touch screen, pointing stick and graphic tablets.'
3. CPU/central processing unit - CPU is an electronic component on a computer's motherboard that interprets and carries out the basic instructions that operate the computer. Eg: intel pentium IV, AMD Athlon, G4.
4. Output - output is data that has been processed into a useful form, called information.
5. Output device - Eg: speaker, monitor, LCD projector, p\printer, plotter.
6. Storage - storage is a location in which data, instructions, and information are saved for future use. Eg: CD ROM, diskette, hard disk.

PROCESS OF FILTERING...

The method of choice to limit access on the internet is to filter either by:-
     a)Keyword blocking
        The method uses a list of banned word or objects terms such as xxx ,sex and nude.As the page is downloading ,the filter searches for any these words.If found,it will blocked the page completely,stop downloading the page ,block the banned words an even shut down the browser.

      b)Site blocking
      This method use software to list the web sites that will be blocked by using software.The software also prevents users from being access the web sites on list.


     c)web rating system
     Web sites are rating in terms of nudity,sex,violence and language.The web sites rates can be done by setting the browser to only accept pages with certain level of ratings.

CONTROVERSIAL CONTENTS AND CONTROL..

2.6  Effect of controversial contents (PORNOGRAPHY and      SLANDER) on society :

Pornography
Pornography is any form of media or material (like books, video or photos) that show erotic behaviour and intended to cause sexual excitement. The effects of pornography on society are :

• Can lead to criminal acts such as exploitation of women.
• Can lead to sexual addiction.
• Can develop lower moral values towards other people.
• Can erode good religious, cultural, behaviours and beliefs.

        Slander
Slander is a false spoken statements about someone, intended to damage his or her reputation. The effects of slander on society are :

• Can develop society that disregards on honesty and truth
• Can lead to bad habits of spreading rumors and untruth
• Can cause people to have negative attitudes towards another person.

2.5 AUTHENTICATION TECHNOLOGIES..

Authentication is a process where user verifies their identity.Authentication deals with the problem of determining whether a user should be allowed access to a particular system. Four commonly authentication methods:

a. User identification (something you know - have to remember). User identification is a unique combination of 
character (letter, number or symbol) that identify specific user. Examples of user identification are pin number and password.

b. Possessed object (something you have - an object). A possessed object is any item that you must carry to gain access to computer or computer facility. Examples of possessed objects are ATM card, credit card, key,security token and smart card. The card you use in an automated teller machine (ATM) is a possessed object that allows access to your bank account. 

                              

c. Biometric device (something you are - part of user's body) is a devices that translates personal characteristic into digital code that is compared with the digital code stored in the database. E.g. of biometric devices are fingerprint reader, hand geometry reader, iris scanner, signature verification system. 

hand geometry reader

d. Callback system is a checking system that authenticates the user. The callback system is commonly used in the bank operation andbusiness transaction. For example, when you called a McDonald Delivery Services, the operator will ask you to hang up since he wants to link you with the other worker.

2.4 WAYS FOR MAKING PERSONAL DATA MORE PRIVATE

Below are list measures you can take to make your personal data more private.


1. Purchase goods with cash, rather than credit card.
2. Install personal firewall.
3. Clear your history file when you are finished browsing.
4. Have unlisted telephone number.
5. Fill in only necessary information on warranty and registration form.

2.3 INTELECTUAL PROPERTY LAW

Intellectual Property laws cover ideas, inventions, literary creactions, unique names, business modals, industrials processes, computer program codes and many more.

Four types Intellectual property
a. Patents for inventions
b. Trademark for brand identity
c. Copyright for materials

COMPUTERISED AND NON-COMPUTERISED SYSTEMS

COMPUTER SYSTEM

A system is an arrangement of elements that when it is put together it becomes an organised and established procedure. A system typically consists of components connected together in order to facilitate the flow of information, matter or energy.

A computer system consists of a set of hardware and software which processes data in a meaningful way. 

THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ETHICS AND LAW

THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ETHICS AND LAW

DEFINITION OF ETHICS

In general, ethics is a moral philosophy where a person makes a specific moral choice and sticks to it. On the other hand, ethics in computing means moral guidelines to refer to when using the computer and computer networks. This includes the Internet.

DEFINITION OF LAW

Law is a legal system comprising of rules and principles that govern the affairs of a community and controlled by a political authority. Law differs from one country to another. In the era of technology, computer law is needed to clarify goods or actions that fall under the computer law. Computer law refers to all areas in law that requires an understanding of computer technology such as hardware, software and Internet. Examples of laws of computing in Malaysia include the Malaysian Communication and Multimedia Act, the Computer Crime Act 1997 and the Telemedicine Act 1997.

WHY DO WE NEED ETHICS AND LAW IN COMPUTING?

• Respecting Ownership

• Respecting Privacy

• Respecting Property

RESPECTING OWNERSHIP

We must respect ownership by not stealing other people’s work either by duplicating or distributing it. Duplicating and distributing copies of audio tapes, video tapes and computer programs without permission and authorization from the individual or company that created the program are immoral and illegal.

RESPECTING PRIVACY AND CONFIDENTIALITY

We should respect other people's privacy and confidentiality by refraining ourselves from reading their mails or files without their permission. If we do so, it is considered as violating an individual’s rights to privacy and confidentiality.

RESPECTING PROPERTY

Property here means ownership. Since an individual data and information are considered as property, therefore, an act of tampering and changing electronic information is considered as vandalism and disrespect for other people’s property.

SIMILARITIES BETWEEN ETHICS AND LAW

Both ethics and law are complimentary to each other and are made:

• to guide user from misusing computers

• to create a healthy computer society, so that computers are used to contribute to a better life

• to prevent any crime

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ETHICS AND LAWS

ETHICS

GUIDELINE - As a guideline to computer users.

MORAL STANDARDS - Ethical behavior is judged by moral standards.

FREE TO FOLLOW - Computer users are free to follow or ignore the code of ethics.

NO PUNISHMENTS - No punishment for anyone who violates ethics.

UNIVERSALS - Universal, can be applied anywhere, all over the world.

PRODUCE ETHICAL COMPUTER USERS - To produce ethical computer users.

IMMORAL - Not honoring computer ethics means ignoring the moral elements (immoral).

LAW

CONTROL - As a rule to control computer users.

JUDICIAL STANDARDS - Law is judged by judicial standards.

MUST FOLLOW - Computer users must follow the regulations and law.

PENALTIES, IMPRISONMENTS AND OTHER PUNISHMENTS - Penalties, imprisonments and other punishments for those who break the law.

DEPENDS ON COUNTRY - Depends on country and state where the crime is committed.

PREVENT MISUSING OF COMPUTERS - To prevent misuse of computers.

CRIME - Not honoring the law means committing a crime.

UNETHICAL VS. LAW BREAKING CONDUCTS

Unethical:

• using the office computer to do personal things

• reading your friend’s e-mail without his or her permission

• plagiarising and using materials from the Internet for your class assignment without giving credit to the original author.

Law breaking:

• sending a computer virus via e-mail

• hacking into your school’s database to change your examination results.

• selling pirated software in a night market

THE IMPACT OF ICT ON SOCIETY

THE IMPACT OF ICT ON SOCIETY

FASTER COMMUNICATION SPEED

In the past, it took a long time for any news or messages to be send. Now with the Internet, news or messages are sent via e-mail to friends, business partners or to anyone efficiently. With the capability of bandwidth, broadband and connection speed on the Internet, any information can travel fast and at an instant. It saves time and is inexpensive.

LOWER COMMUNICATION COST

Using the Internet is cost-effective than the other modes of communication such as telephone, mailing or courier service. It allows people to have access to large amounts of data at a very low cost. With the Internet we do not have to pay for any basic services provided by the Internet. Furthermore, the cost of connection to the Internet is relatively cheap.

RELIABLE MODE OF COMMUNICATION

Computers are reliable. With the internet, information could be accessed and retrieved from anywhere and at anytime. This makes it a reliable mode of communication. However, the input to the computer is contributed by humans. If the data passed to the computer is faulty, the result will be faulty as well. This is related to the term GIGO.

GIGO is a short form for Garbage In Garbage Out. It refers to the quality of output produced according to the input. Normally bad input produces bad output.

EFFECTIVE SHARING OF INFORMATION

With the advancement of ICT, information can be shared by people all around the world. People can share and exchange opinions, news and information through discussion groups, mailing list and forums on the Internet. This enable knowledge sharing which will contribute to the development of knowledge based society.

PAPERLESS ENVIRONMENT

ICT technology has created the term paperless environment. This term means information can be stored and retrieved through the digital medium instead of paper. Online communication via emails, online chat and instant messaging also helps in creating the paperless environment.

BORDERLESS COMMUNICATION

Internet offers fast information retrieval, interactivity, accessibility and versatility. It has become a borderless sources for services and information. Through the Internet, information and communication can be borderless.

SOCIAL PROBLEMS

There are some negative effects of ICT. It has created social problems in the society. Nowadays, people tend to choose online communication rather than having real time conversations. People tend to become more individualistic and introvert.

Another negative effect of ICT is :

• fraud

• identity theft

• Pornography

• Hacking

This will result a moral decedent and generate threads to the society.

HEALTH PROBLEMS

A computer may harm users if they use it for long hours frequently. Computer users are also exposed to bad posture, eyestrain, physical and mental stress. In order to solve the health problems, an ergonomic environment can be introduced. For example, an ergonomic chair can reduces back strain and a screen filter is used to minimize eye strain.

            EDUCATION

Teacher use computers to research for teaching materials,participate in online forum and online conferences.

Student use computers as rerference tools for imformation in the internet.

School administrators use computers for administrative purposes to makesure that entire operations run smoothly.

                         

                 BANKING

Computers are used in baking because bank administrators can control the entire banking system and banking activities the entire banking system and banking activities such as reconciliations,enterbranch transactions(IBT) telegraphic transfer.

To provide electronic banking services for customers.Customers can make any transaction at 24 hours service centers.

Businessman can save their time by using online services offered by banks.They also can access company  accounts for loan applications,business transactions and update their cash flow anytime and anywhere.

               INDUSTRY

Computers are used in industry because

a.To facilitate productin planning and control systems.

b.To assist manufacturing by using CAM.

c.To help in product design by using CAD.

d.To help workers operate machine.Sometimes,robots are used to take dangerous jobs.

e.To help researchers analyze and collect research data for future references.

f.To help administrators to oversee and control entire operations in the factory.

                 E-COMMERCE

Computers are used in E-Commerce because

a.To make buying and selling activities faster and more efficient through Internet.

b.To connect online the customers with suppliers to purchase produts. This method can save time and cost without using a broker and without go to any outlets.

c.To help supplier to keep track of their transactions.All products are bar coded and can be read by the bar code scanner to help in determining prices and managing inventory.

d.To help employers to communicate with their customers for any requires and to get the latest updates inventory to be informed to the customers.

First Generation Computers (1940-1956)

During the first generation,computers were with vacuum tubes.Vacuum tube is an electronic tube is made of glass used as computer component to store and process data.The problems of vacuum tube are generates lots of heat that can damage computer and tubes can burnt out frequently.ENIAC is first generation computer that contains weights of 30 tons,18000 vacuum tubes,30-50 foot space and 16000 watts of power.Advantages of computers in this era :The using of vacuum tubes that can store and process data

Second Generation of Computer (1956-1963) 

The invention of Transistors marked the start of the second generation. These transistors took place of the vacuum tubes used in the first generation computers. Second generation computers also started showing the characteristics of modern day computers with utilities such as printers,disk storage and operating systems. 

In Second Generation computers, the instructions(program) could be stored inside the computer's memory. High-level languages such as COBOL (Common Business-Oriented Language) and FORTRAN (Formula Translator) were used, and they are still used for some applications nowdays.

Third Generation of Computer (1964-1971)

 

In third generation, the operating systems allowerd the machine to run many different application. These applications were monitored and cooordinated by the computer's memory. In third generation also, the Integrated Circuit(IC) was invented in 1958 by Jack Kilby is combined with electronic components onto a small silicon disc, made from quartz. more advancement made possible the fitings of even more components on a small chip or semi conductor.

Fourth Generation of Computer (1971-present) 

Fourth Generation of computers are the modern day computers. The siz started to go down with the improvement in the integrated circuits. Very Large Scale(VLSI) and Ultra Large Scale(ULSI) ensured that millions of components could be fit into a small chip. It reduced the size and price of the computers at the same time increasing power, efficiency and reliability. "the intel 4004 chi[, developed in 1971, took integrated circuit one step further by locating all the components of a computer (central processing unit, memory,and input and output controls) on a minuscule chip."

The continued improvement allowed the networking of computers for the sharing of data. Local Area Networks(LAN) and Wide Area Network(WAN), were potential benefits, in that they could be implemented in corporations and everybody could share data over it. Soon the internet aand World Wide Web appeared on the computer scene and formented the Hi-Tech revolution of 90's. 

                                     

fifth of generation of computer

Fifth generations computers are only in the minds of advance research scientiets and being tested out in the laboratories. These computers will be under Artifical Intelligence(AI), They will be able to take commands in a audio visual way and carry out instructions. Many of the operations which requires low human intelligence will be perfomed by these computers.

Parallel Processing is coming and showing the possibiliy that the power of many CPU's can be used side by side, and computers will be more powerful than thoes under central processing. Advances in Super Conductor technology will greatly improve the speed of information traffic. Future looks bright for the computers. 

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ICT is an acronym that stands for Information Communications Tecnology

However, apart from explaining an acronym, there is not a universally accepted defininition of ICT? Why? Because the concepts, methods and applications involved in ICT are constantly evolving on an almost daily basis. Its difficult to keep up with the changes - they happen so fast.

Lets focus on the three words behind ICT:

- INFORMATION
- COMMUNICATIONS
- TECHNOLOGY

A good way to think about ICT is to consider all the uses of digital technology that already exist to help individuals, businesses and organisations use information.

ICT covers any product that will store, retrieve, manipulate, transmit or receive information electronically in a digital form. For example, personal computers, digital television, email, robots.

So ICT is concerned with the storage, retrieval, manipulation, transmission or receipt of digital data. Importantly, it is also concerned with the way these different uses can work with each other.

In business, ICT is often categorised into two broad types of product: -

(1) The traditional computer-based technologies (things you can typically do on a personal computer or using computers at home or at work); and

(2) The more recent, and fast-growing range of digital communication technologies(which allow people and organisations to communicate and share information digitally)

Let's take a brief look at these two categories to demonstrate the kinds of products and ideas that are covered by ICT:

Traditional Computer Based Technologies

These types of ICT include:

Application	Use
Standard Office Applications - Main Examples
Word processing	E.g. Microsoft Word: Write letters, reports etc
Spreadsheets	E.g. Microsoft Excel; Analyse financial information; calculations; create forecasting models etc
Database software	E.g. Oracle, Microsoft SQL Server, Access; Managing data in many forms, from basic lists (e.g. customer contacts through to complex material (e.g. catalogue)
Presentation software	E.g. Microsoft PowerPoint; make presentations, either directly using a computer screen or data projector. Publish in digital format via email or over the Internet
Desktop publishing	E.g. Adobe Indesign, Quark Express, Microsoft Publisher; produce newsletters, magazines and other complex documents.
Graphics software	E.g Adobe Photoshop and Illustrator; Macromedia Freehand and Fireworks; create and edit images such as logos, drawings or pictures for use in DTP, web sites or other publications
Specialist Applications - Examples (there are many!)
Accounting package	E.g. Sage, Oracle; Manage an organisation's accounts including revenues/sales, purchases, bank accounts etc. A wide range of systems is available ranging from basic packages suitable for small businesses through to sophisticated ones aimed at multinational companies.
Computer Aided Design	Computer Aided Design (CAD) is the use of computers to assist the design process. Specialised CAD programs exist for many types of design: architectural, engineering, electronics, roadways
Customer Relations Management (CRM)	Software that allows businesses to better understand their customers by collecting and analysing data on them such as their product preferences, buying habits etc. Often linked to software applications that run call centres and loyalty cards for example.

Traditional Computer Based Technologies

The C part of ICT refers to the communication of data by electronic means, usually over some distance. This is often achieved via networks of sending and receiving equipment, wires and satellite links.

The technologies involved in communication tend to be complex. You certainly don't need to understand them for your ICT course. However, there are aspects of digital communications that you needs to be aware of. These relate primarily to the types of network and the ways of connecting to the Internet. Let's look at these two briefly (further revision notes provide much more detail to support your study).

Internal networks

Usually referred to as a local area network (LAN), this involves linking a number of hardware items (input and output devices plus computer processing) together within an office or building.

The aim of a LAN is to be able to share hardware facilities such as printers or scanners, software applications and data. This type of network is invaluable in the office environment where colleagues need to have access to common data or programmes.

External networks

Often you need to communicate with someone outside your internal network, in this case you will need to be part of a Wide Area Network (WAN). The Internet is the ultimate WAN - it is a vast network of networks.
ICT in a Broader Context

Your ICT course will almost certainly cover the above examples of ICT in action, perhaps focusing on the use of key applications such as spreadsheets, databases, presentation, graphics and web design software.

It will also consider the following important topics that deal with the way ICT is used and managed in an organisation:

- The nature of information (the "I" in ICT); this covers topics such as the meaning and value of information; how information is controlled; the limitations of ICT; legal considerations

- Management of information - this covers how data is captured, verified and stored for effective use; the manipulation, processing and distribution of information; keeping information secure; designing networks to share information

- Information systems strategy - this considers how ICT can be used within a business or organisation as part of achieving goals and objectives

As you can see, ICT is a broad and fast-changing subject. We hope our free study materials (revision notes, quizzes, presentations etc) will help you master IT!